Chromatography is one of several separation techniques defined as differential migration from a narrow initial zone. Electrophoresis is another member of this group. In this case, the driving force is an electric field, which exerts different forces on solutes of different ionic charge. The resistive force is the viscosity of the nonflowing solvent. The combination of these forces yields ion mobilities peculiar to each solute. Chromatography has numerous applications in biological and chemical fields. It is widely used in biochemical research for the separation and identification of chemical compounds of biological origin. In the petroleum industry the technique is employed to analyze complex mixtures of hydrocarbons.
Nuclear fission power is part of the answer but is not the whole solution to achieving a low carbon economy. The development of nuclear fusion technology could also be very important. Nuclear fusion works in the opposite way to fission by joining very light atoms together. The fusion reaction takes place inside a doughnut-shaped torus within an extreme electromagnetic confinement field to hold the reacting plasma together.
Aerospace manufacturing is unique among other volume manufacturing sectors, and this is especially true of aerospace engine manufacturing. The engine is the most complex element of an aircraft, houses the most individual components, and ultimately determines fuel efficiency. Material and component designs truly drive one another, as opposed to one following the other. This give-and-take relationship between material and design is a particular consideration when investigating next-generation materials. Aerospace manufacturers are a breed apart for all of these reasons. It’s not surprising that their assortment of materials is unique.
A block copolymer is a copolymer formed when the two monomers cluster together and form 'blocks' of repeating units. The material used to make automobile tires is a block copolymer called SBS rubber. block copolymers, in which a long sequence of one chemical unit is followed in the same molecule by a long sequence of another, were made, using many different units and sequence lengths. Copolyester elastomers are block copolymers that is, the two different types of chemical repeating units that make up the chain like molecules occur in long sequences, or blocks.
A copolymer is a polymer that is made up of two or more monomer species. Many commercially important polymers are copolymers. The process in which a copolymer is formed from multiple species of monomers is known as copolymerization. It is often used to improve or modify certain properties of plastics. Copolymers are categorized based on their structures. Those containing a single chain are known as linear copolymers whereas those containing polymeric side chains are called branched copolymers.
Electrostriction is a property relating mechanical strain to the square of the electric field. Electrostriction is the primary coupling mechanism between electric polarization and mechanical strain, the PI hopes to identify correlations between electrostriction coefficients, elastic compliance, and dielectric permittivity. It is present in all insulators and becomes especially important in the ferroelectric ceramics used as capacitors and transducers and in electronic and optical devices where extremely high fields are present. This includes optical fibers, high voltage insulators, laser windows, multilayer electronic packages, thin film components and thick film substrates. In these materials the stresses and strains caused by electric fields are often surprisingly large, making electrostriction an important degradation mechanism.
Electroceramics can be defined as ceramic materials which are able to perform an electronic function for a particular application. Most ceramics, and indeed electroceramics, are electrically insulating in nature; they resist the flow of current and are able to separate charge as a result. This rather wide umbrella-term includes materials for a wide range of applications, of varying complexity, from relatively simple insulating materials, to complex ferroelectrics. The materials for such applications are usually prepared from specifically formulated compositions, and processed under strictly controlled conditions.
Biophysics has been critical to understanding the mechanics of how the molecules of life are made, how different parts of a cell move and function, and how complex systems in our bodies the brain, circulation, immune system, and others work. Biophysics is a vibrant scientific field where scientists from many fields including math, chemistry, physics, engineering, pharmacology, and materials sciences.
Structural formulas identify the location of chemical bonds between the atoms of a molecule. A structural formula consists of symbols for the atoms connected by short lines that represent chemical bonds. Structural chemistry is concerned with valence, which determines how atoms combine in definite ratios and how this is related to the bond directions and bond lengths.
Physical organic chemistry is the study of the interplay between structure and reactivity in organic molecules underpins organic chemistry. Physical organic chemistry is the application of physical chemistry techniques to the study of organic chemical reactions. Physical organic chemist may use math and physics to quantify the rate at which a chemical reaction occurs; this is referred to as kinetics. They may study how electrons are arranged in an atom or molecule or model the way organic molecules behave as they are converted from reactants to products. Sometimes they evaluate the thermodynamics of a reaction, looking at the influence of chemical stability on the formation of products.
Functional materials can be any type of specially designed material with a determined function: semiconductors, polymers, molecular crystals or nanoparticles. Functional materials and composites capable of generating mechanical motion, based on physical principles intrinsic to the material itself. Processing functional engineering materials is of critical importance as processing can often be used to enhance particular functional properties. The field is fast growing as clearly evidenced by the development of engineering devices utilizing functional materials from micrometer to meter size reported in the literature.
Electrochemical processes are used to produce an array of reactive inorganic chemicals and metals. Electrolytic cells use direct current and are designed to be process specific. Every cell consists of an anode, a cathode, and container. Cells may be monopolar or bipolar, with or without separators, and equipped to handle aqueous solutions or fused salt electrolytes. Industrial processes described include electrolysis of chloride solutions and production of manganese dioxide, fluorine, permanganate, and hydrogen peroxide. The electrolysis of water and production of heavy water are also described.
Materials processing, the series of operations that transforms industrial materials from a raw-material state into finished parts or products. The cycle of manufacturing processes that converts materials into parts and products starts immediately after the raw materials are either extracted from minerals or produced from basic chemicals or natural substances. Metallic raw materials are usually produced in two steps. The processes used for the manufacture of a desired product generally provide two major functions: the formation or alteration of materials. The formation of parts or products is usually achieved by molding, casting or the application of pressure. The physical state or composition of commodities and products can be altered by a number of different means including chemical, mechanical and thermal operations.
A crystal is a substance in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating three-dimensional pattern. Most crystals are solids. Crystalline if the atoms or ions that compose it are arranged in a regular way. Gems are described as amorphous if they are non-crystalline.
